Overview

The major concepts below derive primarily from the Law on Standard Pronunciation (LOSP) (표준 발음법, Ministry of Education, Republic of Korea).  The Sounds of Korean (TSOK) by professors Miho Choo and William O’Grady is used as a secondary source.  Other sources may occasionally be cited.

Notations

C	Consonant
V	Vowel
‘	The following C is voiced, e.g., 하 ‘다
:	The preceding V is long, e.g., 말: (speech) but not 말 (horse)
↑	A final ㅇ relinks to become an initial C, e.g., 사랑↑아’다
~	Do not pause (p-rules may apply)
<p>	Pause (p-rules may not apply)
→	Goes to, becomes, is pronounced as

A.  VOICING

01	Voicing
Ref*	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK pp 27, 58	A base C → voiced C	Between voiced sounds (any vowel, ㅁ, ㄴ, ㅇ or ㄹ)	내가 → 내’가 가족 → 가’족 우리 집 → 우리~’집

Sounds produced with no vocal cord vibrations are called “unvoiced,” as the p in pie.  Sounds produced with vocal cord vibrations are called “voiced,” as the by in bye. (Touch your finger to your throat as you say “pie” and “bye” to feel the difference.)  The base consonants that can be voiced include ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ and ㅈ and are shown in the following table.

Korean’s consonant sets:

Base (Closed)	Lax (Initial)	Voiced (Medial)	Tensed (Forceful)	Aspirated
ㄱ	가	아’가	까	카
ㄷ	다	아’다	따	타
ㅂ	바	아’바	빠	파
ㅅ	사	ㅿ*	싸	–
ㅈ	자	아’자	짜	차

By definition –

All vowels are voiced automatically (아, 야, 어, 여, 오, 요, 유, 유, 으, 의, etc.)

The consonants ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅆ and ㅉ are tensed rather than voiced

The consonants ㅋ, ㅌ, ㅍ and ㅊ are aspirated rather than voiced

The consonants ㅁ, ㄴ, ㅇ or ㄹ are voiced automatically

*ㅿ(z) was the voiced form of ㅅ but has dropped out of the language.

*The number in a LOSP citation refers to a section number (as 12), sometimes with a subsection number following a decimal (as 12.1).

The concept of voicing is CRUCIAL for foreign missionaries to understand in order to pronounce consonants correctly and is used throughout P-Rule Mastery.  We indicate voicing herein by placing an apostrophe ‘ in front of a voiced consonant.

For example:

• 내가 → 내’가
• 가족 → 가’족
• 우리 집 → 우리~’집

B.  CONSONANT RELINKING  

02	Consonant relinking
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP  13; TSOK p58	A final C → an initial C	Before an initial  vowel	먹어 → 머’거 밥이 → 바’비 예쁜 여자 → 예쁘~녀’자

Consonant relinking occurs when a consonant at the end of one syllable becomes pronounced at the beginning of the following syllable.  This can occur within a single word or across thought groups.

In Korean, a “word” is a root plus an affix (집 + 에 = 집에).  A “compound” is two or more smaller words (집에 + 있다 = 집에 있다).  Some compounds are written with a space between words, some without.

For example:

• 먹어 → 머’거
• 밥이 → 바’비
• 예쁜 여자 → 예쁘~녀’자

C.  THOUGHT GROUPS

03	Thought groups
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p105	Grouped words that convey a part of a sentence’s meaning	Clarify the meaning of longer sentences.Speed of speech determines arrangement. A short pause occurs at the end of a  thought group.	월요일 밤에  극장에 갔어 → 워료일~’바메 <p> 극짱에~’가써

Thought groups are sets of words that are spoken together, such as phrases or clauses.  They clarify the meaning of longer sentences, their arrangement is determined by speech speed, and they are followed by a short pause.

For example:

• 그녀처럼 우리들도 미국인이다. → 그녀처럼 <p> 우리’들’도 미’구’기니’다.
• 저 큰 아저씨가 어디로 가요? → 저 크~나’저씨’가 <p> 어’디로~’가요?

D.  LONG VOWELS

04	Long vowels
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 6	V → V:	Only in an initial syllable.	왜 → 왜: 세상 → 세:상 사람들을 → 사:람’드를

Many native-speakers distinguish between long and short vowels, many others distinguish them only slightly, and many do not distinguish them at all.  LOSP stipulates that long vowels may occur only in initial syllables. They are best learned on a case-by-case basis. A following colon : is used herein to mark long vowels, following the practice of Korean pronouncing dictionaries.  

For example:

• 왜 → 왜:
• 세상 → 세:상
• 사람들을 → 사:람’드를

E.  ㅎ REDUCTION ADJUSTMENTS

ㅎ weakens or even disappears in some phonetic environments.  This is called ㅎreduction, and it happens between voiced sounds (vowels, ㄹ and the nasal consonants [ㅁ, ㄴ, ㅇ]) and even between words in a thought group.

5.  ㅎ reduction between vowels

05	ㅎ reduction between vowels
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p69	An initial ㅎ  → weak ㅎ An initial ㅎ  → deletion	In colloquial speech between two vowels In fast colloquial speech between two vowels	강조하다 → 강’조’하’다 구하는 → 구:’하는

When a syllable-initial ㅎ occurs between two vowels, the ㅎ is always weakened or, in faster speech, even deleted completely.  ㅎ reductions are extremely important for foreign missionaries to grasp. Otherwise, the ㅎ sound may be over-stressed.

Within P-Rule Mastery, we annotate these this type of ㅎreduction by preceding each with an apostrophe.  Please do the same: 강조하다 → 강’조’하’다.

Answer the following questions by placing an apostrophe ‘ in front of all this type of ㅎ reduction.  Also, continue to mark any voicing, consonant relinking, thought groups, long vowels, or other adjustments as appropriate.  

For example:

• 강조하다 → 강’조’하’다
• 구하는 → 구:’하는

6.  ㅎ reduction after final ㅁ, ㄴ or ㄹ

06	ㅎ reduction after final ㅁ, ㄴ or ㄹ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p69	A syllable-initial ㅎ  → weak ㅎ A syllable-initial ㅎ  → deletion	In colloquial speech following ㅁ, ㄴ or ㄹ   In fast colloquial speech following ㅁ, ㄴ or ㄹ	임하다 → 이마’다 말하다 → 마:라’다 은행 → 으냉

When a syllable-initial ㅎ follows ㅁ, ㄴ or ㄹ, the ㅎ is always weakened or, in faster speech, even deleted completely.  ㅎ reductions are extremely important for foreign missionaries to grasp. Otherwise, the ㅎ sound may be over-stressed.

Within P-Rule Mastery, we will note this type of ㅎ reduction by dropping the ㅎ.  Please do the same: 임하다 → 이마’다.

Answer the following questions by noting ㅎ reductions.  Also, continue to mark any voicing, consonant relinking, thought groups, long vowels, or other adjustments as appropriate.  

For example:

• 임하다 → 이마’다
• 말하다 → 마:라’다
• 은행 → 으냉

7.  ㅎ reduction after a final ㅇ

07	ㅎ reduction after a  final ㅇ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p69	An initial ㅎ  → weak ㅎ An initial ㅎ  → deletion	In colloquial speech following ㅁ, ㄴ or ㄹ   In fast colloquial speech following ㅁ, ㄴ or ㄹ	안녕하세요 → 안녕↑아세요 개종하다 → 개:’종↑아’다 주님은 선지자를 통해 복음을 가르치셨어요 → 주니믄 <p> 선’지’자를 통↑애 <p> 보’그믈 가르치셔써요

When a ㅎ follows a final ㅇ, the ㅎ is always weakened or, in faster speech, even deleted completely.  ㅎ reductions are extremely important for foreign missionaries to grasp. Otherwise, the ㅎ sound may be over-stressed.

Within P-Rule Mastery, we will use the following annotation for this type of ㅎ reduction.  Please do the same: 사랑해요 → 사랑↑애요

For example:

• 안녕하세요 → 안녕↑아세요
• 개종하다 → 개:’종↑아’다
• 주님은 선지자를 통해 복음을 가르치셨어요 → 주니믄 <p> 선’지’자를 통↑애 <p> 보’그믈 가르치셔써요

F.  ㅎ ADJUSTMENTS

ㅎ can transform an adjacent sound into a completely different sound in certain phonetic environments.

8.  A syllable-finalㅎaspirates certain following consonants

08	A syllable-final ㅎ aspirates certain following consonants
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 12.1	A syllable-final ㅎ →  aspirates a following C	ㄱ, ㄷ or ㅈ aspirate to ㅋ, ㅌ, or ㅊ	쌓지 → 싸치 닳고 → 달코않던 → 안턴

If the final consonant ㅎ is followed by a syllable that starts with a ㄱ, ㄷ or ㅈ, the ㄱ, ㄷ, or ㅈ is pronounced ㅋ, ㅌ or ㅊ.

Answer the following questions by making the proper ㅎ adjustments.  Also, continue to mark any voicing, consonant relinking, thought groups, long vowels, ㅎ reductions, or other adjustments as appropriate.  

For example:

• 쌓지 → 싸치
• 닳고 → 달코
• 않던 → 안턴

9.  A syllable-initial ㅎ aspirates certain preceding consonants

09	A syllable-initial ㅎ aspirates certain preceding consonants
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 12.1; 17	A syllable-initial ㅎ →  aspirates a preceding C NOT the 치 exception	ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ or ㅈ  aspirate to ㅋ, ㅌ, ㅍ or ㅊ A preceding ㄷ combines with a following 히 to form 티, which is then pronounced 치	먹히다 → 머키다 밟히다 → 발피다 맏형 → 마텽 굳히다 → 구티’다 → 구치’다

If the final consonants ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, or ㅈ are followed by an ㅎ in the next syllable, the following sound changes occur:  ㄱ → ㅋ, ㄷ → ㅌ, ㅂ → ㅍ, ㅈ → ㅊ.

For example:

• 먹히다 → 머키다
• 밟히다 → 발피다
• 맏형 → 마텽

11.  ㅎ is pronounced ㅌ after a syllable-final ㅅ, ㅈ, ㅊ or ㅌ

11	ㅎ is pronounced ㅌ after a syllable-final ㅅ, ㅈ, ㅊ or ㅌ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 12Addendum 2	A syllable-initial ㅎ → ㅌ	After ㅅ, ㅈ, ㅊ or ㅌ, which as a final takes on the sound of the head of its closed-consonant set.	옷 한 벌 → 오~탄~’벌 낮 한때 → 나~탄때 꽃 한 송이 → 꼬~탄 송이

See an explanation of closed consonants and their sets at section K. Consonant adjustments and p-rule 36. Korean’s closed consonants.

For example:

• 옷 한 벌 → 오~탄~’벌
• 낮 한때 → 나~탄때
• 꽃 한 송이 → 꼬~탄 송이

12.  ㅎ tenses the initial ㅅ of a following syllable

12	ㅎ tenses the initial ㅅ of a following syllable
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 12.2	Syllable-initial ㅅ → ㅆ	After a syllable-final ㅎ	닿소 → 다쏘 싫소 → 실쏘

If the final consonant ㅎ is followed by a ㅅ, the ㅅ is pronounced ㅆ.

For example:

• 닿소 → 다쏘
• 싫소 → 실쏘

13.  ㅎ drops before a syllable-initial vowel

13	ㅎ drops before a syllable-initial vowel
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 12.4	Final ㅎ → drops	Before a syllable-initial V	좋아 → 조:아 많은 → 마:는

If the final consonant ㅎ is followed by a vowel, the ㅎ is not pronounced.

For example:

• 좋아 → 조:아
• 많은 → 마:는

14.  Final ㅎ drops before a ㄴ or ㄹ

14	Final ㅎ drops before a ㄴ or ㄹ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 12.3	Final ㅎ → drops	Before a syllable-initial ㄴ or ㄹ	놓는 → 논는 않는 → 안는 뚫네 → 뚤레

If a final ㅎ is followed by a ㄴ or ㄹ, the ㅎ is not pronounced.

For example:

• 놓는 → 논는
• 않는 → 안는
• 뚫네 → 뚤레

G.  TENSING ADJUSTMENTS

Korean’s tense (forceful) consonants are pronounced in contrast to lax (unforceful) consonants.  Both types are unvoiced, but the tensed sounds are made with extra muscular effort, including firm mouth closure and quick opening of the lips as the sound ends.  (See A. Voicing above.)

Base (Closed)	Lax (Initial)	Voiced (Medial)	Tensed (Forceful)	Aspirated
ㄱ	가	아’가	까	카
ㄷ	다	아’다	따	타
ㅂ	바	아’바	빠	파
ㅅ	사		싸	–
ㅈ	자	아’자	짜	차

15.  Consonants tense many consonants they precede

15	Consonants tense many consonants they precede
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 23	Lax C →  tense Cㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅈ or ㅅ →ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅉ or ㅆ	Tensing occurs after a lax, aspirated, tense and sometimes after a nasal C or a ㄹ	덥다 → 덥:따 학기 → 학끼 낮잠 → 낟짬햇살 → 해쌀 or 핻쌀

Tensing is the forceful pronunciation of lax consonants (ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅈ or ㅅ) so that they become tense consonants (ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅉ or ㅆ).  Tensing occurs in many situations. Some are predictable and some must be learned on a case-by-case basis.

For example:

• 덥다 → 덥:따
• 학기 → 학끼
• 낮잠 → 낟짬
• 햇살 → 해쌀 or 핻쌀

In P-Rule Mastery, we will use the following notation for this kind of adjustment.  Please do the same: 햇살 → 해쌀 NOT 핻쌀.

16.  An affix-final ㄹ tenses a following consonant

16	An affix-final ㄹ tenses a following consonant
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 27	Lax C →  tense C	After the ㄹ of an affix	될 것이다 → 될~꺼시’다 주실 거죠 → 주실~꺼’죠

Do not, however, tense a following consonant if you halt after the affix-final ㄹ.

For example:

• 될 것이다 → 될~꺼시’다
• 주실 거죠 → 주실~꺼’죠
• 지금 갈 <p> 그 장소가 어디죠 → 지금~’갈 <p> 그~’장소’가 어’디’죠 NOT 지금~’갈 <p> 끄~’장소’가 어’디죠

17.  A verb-stem final ㄴ or ㅁ tenses certain following consonants

17	A verb-stem final ㄴ or ㅁ tenses certain following consonants
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 24	Lax C →  tense C	ㄴ or ㅁ tense ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅅ or ㅈ	닮고 → 담:꼬얹다 → 언따

For example:

• 닮고 → 담:꼬
• 얹다 → 언따

19.  The invisible “intervening ㅅ” tenses following consonants

19	The invisible “intervening ㅅ” tenses following consonants
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 28	An invisible ㅅ tenses C	That are following, syllable-initial consonants	길가 → 길까 산새 → 산쌔

ㅅ is a special case because it functioned in old Korean like the possessive 의 today.  ㅅ with that function is called an intervening ㅅ, or 사이시옷. Alas, the intervening ㅅ sometimes does not appear in modern spelling, invisibly tensing a following consonant.

For example:

• 길가 → 길까
• 산새 → 산쌔

22.  Do not tense a consonant that follows an affix-final ㄹ if you pause after the affix

22	Do not tense a consonant that follows an affix-final ㄹ if you pause after the affix
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 27	Lax C →  lax C	After a pause following an affix-final ㄹ	지금 갈 그 장소가 어디죠 → 지금~’갈 <p> 그~’장소’가 어’디’죠   NOT 지금~’갈 <p> 끄~’장소’가 어’디죠

(Contrast p-rule 16.)

For example:

• 지금 갈 <p> 그 장소가 어디죠 → 지금~’갈 <p> 그~’장소’가 어’디’죠 NOT 지금~’갈 <p> 끄~’장소’가 어’디죠

H.  의 ADJUSTMENTS

23.  The possessive 의 may be pronounced 에

23	The possessive 의 may be pronounced 에
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 5	의 → 에	As a possessive; in colloquial speech; optionally in formal environments	부모님의 사랑 → 부모니메 사랑 아침의 → 아치메

The possessive 의 is usually pronounced 에 in colloquial speech. Older Koreans may pronounce a possessive 의 as 의. In formal situations or when reading formal texts, younger Koreans may also pronounce 의 as 의.

For example:

• 부모님의 사랑 → 부모니메 사랑
• 아침의 → 아치메

25.  A non-possessive 의 in a word’s first syllable is pronounced 의, and a non-possessive 의 in a word’s subsequent syllable may be pronounced 이.

25	A non-possessive 의 in a word’s first syllable is pronounced 의, and a non-possessive 의 in a word’s subsequent syllable may be pronounced 이
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 5 Exceptions 3, 4	의  → 의의  → 의 or 이	As a word’s first syllableAs a word’s subsequent syllable	의자 → 의’자 의식 → 의:식 주의 → 주의 or → 주이

For example:

• 의자 → 의’자
• 의식 → 의:식
• 주의 → 주의 or → 주이

26.  The non-possessive ㅢ in a consonant-initial syllable is pronounced ㅣ.

26	The non-possessive ㅢ in a consonant-initial syllable is pronounced ㅣ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 5 Exceptions 3, 4	ㅢ  → ㅣ	In aㅢ syllable beginning with a C	희망 → 히망 무늬 → 무니

For example:

• 희망 → 히망
• 유희 → 유히

I.  ㄹ ADJUSTMENTS

27.  Pronounce ㄹ as ㄴ following ㅁ or ㅇ

27	Pronounce ㄹ as ㄴ following ㅁ or ㅇ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 19	ㄹ → ㄴ	After a syllable-final ㅁ or ㅇ	장로 → 장:노

For example:

• 장로 → 장:노

28.  Pronounce ㄹ as ㄴ following ㄱ or ㅂ

28	Pronounce ㄹ as ㄴ following ㄱ or ㅂ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 19 Addendum	ㄹ → ㄴ	After a syllable-final ㄱ or ㅂ	협력 → 혐녁

For example:

• 협력 → 혐녁

29. When ㄹ abuts ㄴ, the two produce ㄹ ㄹ

29	When ㄹ abuts ㄴ, the two produce ㄹ ㄹ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 20	ㄴ + ㄹ → ㄹ ㄹㄹ + ㄴ → ㄹ ㄹ	When ㄹ and ㄴ abut across two syllables	난로 → 날:로

When ㄹ meets a ㄴ, the ㄴ becomes ㄹ.  This creates a double ㄹ sound.

For example:

• 난로 → 날:로

30.  When ㄹ abuts ㄴ, the two produce ㄴ ㄴ in some words

30	When ㄹ abuts ㄴ, the two produce ㄴ ㄴ in some words
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 20 Exception	ㄴ + ㄹ → ㄴ ㄴ	When ㄹ and ㄴ abut across two syllables	임진란 → 임:’진난

There are exceptions to p-rule 29 in which a ㄹ that meets an ㄴ becomes ㄴ, creating a double ㄴ ㄴ sound.

For example:

• 임진란 → 임:’진난

J.  NASALIZATION ADJUSTMENTS

31.  A closed ㄱ, ㄷ or ㅂ changes to a nasal before ㄴ or ㅁ

31	A closed ㄱ, ㄷ or ㅂ changes to a nasal before ㄴ or ㅁ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 18	Closed consonant sets — ㄱ set:  ㄱ, ㄲ, ㅋ, ㄳ, ㄺ              ㄷ set:  ㄷ,ㅅ, ㅆ, ㅈ, ㅊ, ㅌ, ㅎ ㅂ set:  ㅂ,ㅍ, ㄼ, ㄿ, ㅄ)                All → ㅇ, ㄴ or ㅁ	When followed by a syllable-initial ㄴ or ㅁ	먹는 → 멍는 잡는 → 잠는 맞는 → 만는

For example:

• 먹는 → 멍는
• 잡는 → 잠는
• 맞는 → 만는

32.  In certain compounds, an 이 vowel adds an ㄴ pronounced ㄴ

32	In certain compounds, an 이 vowel adds an ㄴ pronounced ㄴ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 29	이, 야, 여, 요 or 유 add an ㄴ → 니, 냐, 녀 뇨 or 뉴	After the final-consonant (not ㄹ) of the first term in a compound	꽃 잎 → 꼰~닙 콩 엿 → 콩~녇

In Korean, a “word” is a root plus an affix (집 + 에 = 집에).  A “compound” is two or more smaller words (집에 + 있다 = 집에 있다).  Some compounds are written with a space between words, some without.

For example:

• 꽃 잎 → 꼰~닙
• 콩 엿 → 콩~녇

33.  In certain compounds, an 이 vowel adds an ㄴ that need not be pronounced

33	In certain compounds, an 이 vowel adds an ㄴ that need not be pronounced.
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 29	이, 야, 여, 요 or 유add an ㄴ that need not be pronounced	After the final-consonant (not ㄹ) of the first term in a compound)	3.1절 → 사밀쩔  NOT 삼닐쩔

We use “이 vowels” to refer to the y vowels (ㅑ, ㅕ, ㅛ and ㅠ) plus 이, a vowel that “glides” y sounds into vowels.  To the makers of 한글, in fact, one leg of the two of each y vowel represented the 이.

For example:

• 3.1절 → 사밀쩔 NOT 삼닐쩔

34.  In certain compounds, an 이 vowel adds an ㄴ pronounced ㄹ

34	In certain compounds, an 이 vowel adds an ㄴ pronounced ㄹ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 29 Addendum 1	이, 야, 여, 요 or 유add an ㄴ that is pronounced as ㄹ	After a final ㄹ in the first term of a compound	서울역 → 서울력 NOT 서울녁

For example:

• 서울역 → 서울력 NOT 서울녁

35.  These 이 vowel changes apply between two words pronounced as one

35	These 이 vowel changes apply between two words pronounced as one
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 29 Addendum 2	P-rules 32-34 apply	Between two words pronounced as one	스물 여섯 → 스물~려섣

For example:

• 스물 여섯 → 스물~려섣

K.  CONSONANT ADJUSTMENTS

36.  Korean’s closed consonants

36	Korean’s closed consonants
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 9TSOK 27, 77	Closed-consonant sets:ㄱ,ㄲ, ㅋ                    → ㄱㄷ, ㅌ, ㅈ, ㅊ, ㅅ, ㅅ  → ㄷㅂ, ㅍ                        → ㅂ	ㄱ, ㄷ, and ㅂ are set heads.  As closed consonants, set members are pronounced the same as the set head before a consonant or at the end of a word.	덮다 → 덥다 → 덥따옷 → 옫

The lips must open to complete the pronunciation of any non-nasal consonant.  “Closed” refers to not opening the lips to finish saying a consonant. Thus, a closed consonant has little if any sound to differentiate it from other consonants of its type.  There is, for example, no difference in pronunciation amongㄱ, ㄲ, and ㅋ when they are fully closed. Korean assigns 11 closed consonants to three separate sets and anoints one closed consonant to head each set.  The consonants in a set have the same closed pronunciation as the set head. Any sound adjustment process unfolds with the set head standing in for each member of its set.

For example:

• 덮다 → 덥다 → 덥따
• 옷 → 옫

37.  The following consonant pairs are pronounced as their indicated closed-consonant section heads

37	The second consonant is final in some consonant pairs
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 10	ㄳ → ㄱㄵ → ㄴㄼ → ㄹㄽ → ㄹㄾ → ㄹㅄ → ㅂ BUTㄼ → ㅂ	When preceding a consonant or appearing in final position.  The first consonant is pronounced in these consonant pairs.  When밟 or넓 precede a consonant.	넋 → 넉 앉다 → 안따여덟 → 여덜값 → 갑 핥다 → 할따 없다 → 업:따 밟다 → 밥:따  but 밟어 → 발:’버

Remember that members of a closed-consonant set change to the set head before a consonant or at the end of a word.

For example:

• 값 → 갑

38.  Usually, only the first consonant is pronounced in consonant pairs like ㄺ, ㄻ, and ㄿ

38	Usually, only the first consonant is pronounced in consonant pairs like ㄺ, ㄻ, and ㄿ
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 11	ㄺ → ㄱㄻ→ ㅁㄿ→ ㄼ→ ㅂ BUTㄺ → ㄹ	Before a V or in final position Before aㄱ following a verb stem	닭 → 닥 젊다 → 점:따 읊다 → 읍따 읽거나 → 일꺼나

Remember that members of a closed-consonant set change to the set head before a consonant or at the end of a word.

For example:

• 닭 → 닥

40.  Only the second sound in a consonant pair relinks

40	Only the second sound in a consonant pair relinks
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 14	Pair C2  → initial C	Before a vowel-initial syllable	닭이 → 달’기

For example:

• 닭이 → 달’기

41.  A closed consonant relinks using the sound of its set head

41	A closed consonant relinks using the sound of its set head
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 15	Closed C → closed-consonant set head →  initial C	Always a final sound, a closed consonant relinks to a following word’s vowel-initial syllable using the sound of its closed-set head	겉옷 → 걷옫 →거’돋

See an explanation of closed consonants and their sets at section K. Consonant adjustments and p-rule 36. Korean’s closed consonants.

For example:

• 겉옷 → 걷옫 → 거’돋

L.  OPTIONAL ADJUSTMENTS

Optional adjustments may not appear in the LOSP.  In fact, a number are specifically banned there. While the optional adjustments that follow are widely used, some are incompletely established and may vary from speaker to speaker.  They may help the foreign missionary speaker understand more of what he or she hears, but we advise discretion in usage.

1988’s LOSP did not present all p-rules, omitting those on which a committee could not agree.  This granted discretion to lexicographers, linguists and P-Rule Mastery’s editors.  The LOSP has done wonders at standardizing the Korean language, which remains, however, in a degree of flux.

42.  Certain aspirated consonants weaken into simpler consonants

42	Certain aspirated consonants weaken into simpler consonants
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p94	Aspirated final C → non-aspirated initial C	끝은 → 끄튼 →  끄츤 or 끄슨 word → pronunciation → weakening → further weakening	부엌에 가서 밥 먹어요 → 부어’게~’가서 <p> 밤~머’거요 꽃을 사줬어요 → 꼬슬 사’줘써 요끝이 없어요 → 끄시 업써요

Final consonants ㅍ, ㅋ, ㅌ, or ㅊ may optionally be weakened by the speaker. While these are not the standard pronunciations you will find in a dictionary, they are widely used by Koreans.

For example:

• 부엌에 가서 밥 먹어요 → 부어’게~’가서 <p> 밤~머’거요
• 꽃을 사줬어요 → 꼬슬 사’줘써요
• 끝이 없어요 → 끄시 업써요

43.  Adjacent nasal consonants can change a ㄴ into a different nasal

43	Adjacent nasal consonants can change a ㄴ into a different nasal
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p81	ㄴ → ㅁ	Optionally, when followed by a different nasal	선교사들이 반말하면 안되죠 → 선’교사’드리 밤:마라면 안’되’죠

While these are not the standard pronunciations you will find in a dictionary, they are widely used by Koreans.  The LSOP specifically excludes this adjustment.

For example:

• 한국말이 힘들지만 계속 배우고 있습니다 → 항:궁마리 힘’들’지만 <p> 계:속~빼우’고 이씀니’다
• 선교사들이 반말하면 안되죠 → 선’교사’드리 밤:마라면 안’되’죠

44.  Diphthongs may simplify in colloquial speech

44	Diphthongs may simplify in colloquial speech
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p62	Diphthong V → simple V	Optionally, on a case by case basis	사과 → 사’가

In colloquial speech, a speaker may reduce a diphthong to a single vowel. While these are not the standard pronunciations that you will find in a dictionary, they are widely used by Koreans.

For example:

• 사과 → 사’가

45.  Certain vowels in common endings change to other vowels

45	Certain vowels in common endings change to other vowels
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p68	ㅛ → ㅕㅗ → ㅜ	Optionally, in casual speech, as in the honorific (…요 ) and in grammatical endings (하고)	안녕하세요 → 안녕↑아세여있고 → 읻꾸

When texting and In casual speech, the speaker may pronounce ㅛ as ㅕ and ㅗ as ㅜ. While these are not the standard pronunciations you will find in a dictionary, they are widely used by Koreans.

For example:

• 안녕하세요 → 안녕↑아세여
• 있고 → 읻꾸

46.  웨 can replace 외  (교회 in Naver online dictionary)

46	Certain vowels in common endings alter to similar vowels
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
Naver	외 → 웨	Optionally, for smoother speech	교회 → 교:’회 or 교’훼

The sound 외 may be pronounced 웨 as an alternative pronunciation found in Korean dictionaries.

In P-Rule Mastery, we use 외 as opposed to 웨, and we ask that you do as well. However, in this section, please practice using the alternative pronunciation 웨 in order to familiarize yourself with it.

For example:

• 교회 → 교:’회 or 교’훼

M.  VOWEL ADJUSTMENTS

47.  “Yized” vowels drop the y in verb conjugations

47	“Y”ized vowels drop the y in verb conjugations
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 5	ㅣ+ V  → yV → V	ㅣtends to add a “y” to a following vowel, but it falls away in verb conjugations	가지어 → 가’져 → 가’저

For example:

• 가지어 → 가’져 → 가’저

48.  ㅖ may be pronounced ㅔ but not in the full syllables 예 and 례

48	ㅖ may be pronounced ㅔ but not in the full syllables 예 and 례
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 5	ㅖ  → ㅔ	On an optional but common basis	시계 → 시:’계 or 시:’게

The sound 예 may be pronounced 에 as an alternative pronunciation in LOSP and Korean dictionaries.

Throughout P-Rule Mastery, we use 예 as opposed to 에.  Please do the same. However, in this section practice using the alternative pronunciation 에 in order to familiarize yourself with its existence.

For example:

• 시계 → 시:’계 or 시:’게

49.  ㅖ is also pronounced ㅔ except in the syllables 예 and 례

49	ㅖ is also pronounced ㅔ except in the syllables  예 and 례
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 5	ㅖ →  ㅔ 예 → 예:  NOT 에:	On an optional but common basis	예 → 예:  NOT 에:

For example:

• 예 → 예:  NOT 에:

50.   ㄷ (ㅌ) becomes ㅈ (ㅊ) before 이

50	ㄷ (ㅌ) becomes ㅈ (ㅊ) before 이
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 17	ㄷ → ㅈ → 지ㅌ → ㅊ → 치	A syllable-final ㄷ changes to ㅈ before an affix-initial ㅣ and then relinks with the ㅣ	굳이 → 궂이 → 구’지 밭이 → 밫이 → 바치

For example:

• 굳이 → 궂이 → 구’지
• 밭이 → 밫이 → 바치

51.  Certain final vowels may add a “y” sound

51	Certain final vowels may add a y sound
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 22	되어 → 되어 or 되여	In verb-stem endings, a non-y vowel is correct, but a y-vowel may also be used	되어 → 되여

If a verb ending is 어 or 오, it can be pronounced 여 or 요, respectively.

For example:

• 되어 → 되여

N.  OTHER ADJUSTMENTS

52.  Distinguish 내가 (I) and 네가 (you)

52	Distinguish 내가 (I) and 네가 (you)
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LDS67 Moses 1	내가 →  내가네가 → 네:이가	When reading or quoting scriptures	나는 네가 해야 할 이를 갖고 있도다 → 나는 네:이’가 해야~’할~리를 갇꼬 읻또’다

One of the sounds that missionaries struggle with when reading the scriptures is differentiating between 내가 (meaning “me”) and 네가 (meaning “you”) as well as 내게 (meaning “to me”) and 네게 (meaning “to you”).

A great way to help your listeners hear you say 네가 and 네게 more clearly when you read the scriptures is to use a long vowel for 에: and add another 이 sound following it.  This causes the opposite effect of a contraction and essentially allows the listener to hear the 이 more clearly that comprises the 에 sound.

For example:

• 네게 → 네:이’게

53.  Contractions of 하다, 이다 and 있다

53	Contractions of 하다, 이다 and 있다
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p64	감사합니다 → 감:삼니’다	On an optional but common basis	감사합니다 → 감:삼니’다

하다, 이다, and 있다 are extremely common in the Korean language. As with most languages, when sounds occur regularly, they are often contracted during fast speech.

For example:

• 감사합니다 → 감:삼니’다

54.  Direct object and topic markers

54	Direct object and topic markers
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p65	-를 → -ㄹ-는 → -ㄴ	On an optional but common basis	나를 → 날저는 → 전

The direct object and topic markers can be contracted in speech and informal text.

 For example:

• 나를 → 날
• 저는 → 전

55.  Contraction of identical vowels

55	Contraction of identical Vowels
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p67	나아가 → 나’가	On an optional but common basis	나아가 → 나’가

When identical vowels appear next to each other, they may optionally be contracted into one.

For example:

• 나아가 → 나’가

56.  Contractions of common words

56	Contractions of common words
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
TSOK p66	무엇 → 뭐:나의 → 내	On an optional but common basis	무엇 → 뭐:나의 → 내

Common words are often contracted in speech and informal text.

For example:

• 무엇 → 뭐:
• 나의 → 내     

57.  Atypical names of certain 한글 letters

57	Atypical names of certain 한글 letters
Ref	P-rule structure	Environment	Examples
LOSP 16	Names such as  ㄷ  ㅊ  ㅎ	When saying or conjugating the names of 한글 letters	디귿이 → 디’그시 치읓에 → 치으세히읗이 → 히으시

The Republic of Korea’s Ministry of Education makes an effort to ensure that Koreans know how to pronounce atypical names of 한글 letters.

For example:

• 디귿이 → 디’그시
• 치읓에 → 치으세
• 히읗이 → 히으시

Bibliography

Chang, Suk-in, Modern Conversational Korean, revised edition, 352 pp, Seoul Computer Press,    Seoul, 1992.

Choo, Miho and William O’grady, The Sounds of Korean, A Pronunciation Guide, 256 pp, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 2003.

Hang, Hŭi-yŏng, An Introduction to Korean Phonetics and Phonology, 3rd edition, 489 pp, Bando Publishing Company, Seoul, 1991, in Korean.

Kim, Min-su, New Korean Linguistics, Completely Revised Edition, 317 pp, Iljogak Publishing Company, Seoul, 1993, in Korean.

Ministry of Education, Republic of Korea, Section 2:  The Law on Standard Pronunciation, Standard Language Regulation, Ministry of Education Announcement 88-2, 10 pp, ROK, Seoul, 1988, in Korean.

O, Chŏng-nan, Linear and Non-linear Phonology, 371 pp, Hyŏngsŏl Publishing Company, Seoul, 1993, in Korean.

Yi, Hŭi-sŭng, Introduction to Korean Linguistics, 446 pp, Minjung Seogwan Publishing Company, Seoul, Seventh Edition, 1972, in Korean.

Yi, Ŭn-jŏng, A pronouncing Dictionary of the Korean Language, 1,387 pp, Paeksan Publishing  Company, Seoul, 1992, in Korean.